Do you enjoy seeing wildlife? Do you have lots of smaller diameter low-value trees on your property? If so, constructing brush piles is for you. They are a great way to increase numbers of many kinds of small game and non-game species. Here are some tips on making a long-lasting brush pile instead of a pile of brush.
Good locations include edges of fields and woods, fence corners, shallow gullies, near ponds and food strips. A brush pile in your yard can be small and tucked into a corner. Do not place them in the middle of a field, in standing water, or where there is severe erosion on a steep slope. Brush piles are flammable, so keep them away from buildings. Several medium-sized piles (10-15 feet wide and 5-8 feet high) are better than one large pile. Space them 300 feet apart or less.
Make a base with stumps and logs that are at least six inches in diameter. Lay them four to six inches apart. Stack the next layer at right angles to the first, log-cabin style and the next with smaller logs, again at right angles.
Pile smaller brush on top of the logs so the base is covered and the brush touches the ground. Make your top layers denser, working in even smaller branches. Allow openings into the base that are not covered by the brush on top.
Considering planting native vines to grow over your brush pile. They are attractive and their fruit will attract birds.
For additional instructions, methods and materials see the full article by David Scamardella, Service Forester, PA Dept. of Conservation and Natural Resources, and Michael and Laura Jackson, PA Forest Stewards Volunteers. It is in the Winter 2012 issue of Forest Leaves, available at http://extension.psu.edu/private-forests/news/newsletters/forest-leaves/winter-2012/view. Or call your county extension office. In Lackawanna County ask for the Garden Helpline at 963-6842 or email LackawannaMG@psu.edu.
Terry Schettini, Extension Educator
Penn State Cooperative Extension in Lackawanna County
Showing posts with label wildlife. Show all posts
Showing posts with label wildlife. Show all posts
Thursday, February 23, 2012
Tuesday, June 7, 2011
Skunk Control
The lushness of the seasons is finally upon us. The trees gently shading us with their green canopies. The rhododendrons are in full bloom, whites, subtle purples, and the reds of the related azaleas welcome us home. Even the dandelions tease us with a cheery carpet of yellow. Two colors though, should serve as a warning: black and white. A dangerous combination, more often “scented” than seen, the mephitis mephitis, the striped skunk is a common visitor to our yard.
Frequently skunks dig up the lawn or garden looking for grubs. The signs for skunk damage around the home are small cone shaped holes about three to four inches in diameter. While other animals such as dogs or squirrels dig too, they do not make circular holes. Treat your lawn with a grub control product if these are evident and excessive.
Fencing areas is the first step in keeping skunks out of areas prone to a den such as under decks or sheds. As these creatures are prone to digging, burying the first foot of wire mesh fence with about six inches bent away from the structure is a hindrance. Cover basement windows with mesh or plastic domes.
Food sources will attract skunks too. Keep trash cans sealed and secure. If you suspect a skunk is visiting your house, discontinue feeding your pets outside. Plus skunks are attracted to rodents. Garages, barns, and sheds are common places for them to live; as a result a rodent control program might be necessary.
Finding a skunk living around your home is not a welcome sight. They are nocturnal animals so they may have been there for years without anyone noticing. And while they cause problems for the nose and nosey pets, they can be beneficial. If a skunk is problematic, consider a professional wildlife removal expert. For more help with skunks, contact the Penn State Master Gardener Helpline at 570-963-6842 or email LackawannaMG@psu.edu and request a free copy of our Skunks Wildlife Control publication.
Steve Ward
Master Gardener Coordinator
Penn State Cooperative Extension in Lackawanna County
Frequently skunks dig up the lawn or garden looking for grubs. The signs for skunk damage around the home are small cone shaped holes about three to four inches in diameter. While other animals such as dogs or squirrels dig too, they do not make circular holes. Treat your lawn with a grub control product if these are evident and excessive.
Fencing areas is the first step in keeping skunks out of areas prone to a den such as under decks or sheds. As these creatures are prone to digging, burying the first foot of wire mesh fence with about six inches bent away from the structure is a hindrance. Cover basement windows with mesh or plastic domes.
Food sources will attract skunks too. Keep trash cans sealed and secure. If you suspect a skunk is visiting your house, discontinue feeding your pets outside. Plus skunks are attracted to rodents. Garages, barns, and sheds are common places for them to live; as a result a rodent control program might be necessary.
Finding a skunk living around your home is not a welcome sight. They are nocturnal animals so they may have been there for years without anyone noticing. And while they cause problems for the nose and nosey pets, they can be beneficial. If a skunk is problematic, consider a professional wildlife removal expert. For more help with skunks, contact the Penn State Master Gardener Helpline at 570-963-6842 or email LackawannaMG@psu.edu and request a free copy of our Skunks Wildlife Control publication.
Steve Ward
Master Gardener Coordinator
Penn State Cooperative Extension in Lackawanna County
Friday, January 7, 2011
Landscaping for Wildlife
Many of the gifts we receive during the holiday season are to keep us warm during the harsh winter. Fleece, scarves, gloves, and flannel give us protection. Hot cocoa, soothing tea, a bountiful meal with friends and family provide comfort and sustenance. As winter grows longer, the deeper we go into our homes for shelter. The other kind of Pennsylvania residents, the wildlife among us, don’t have such things.
These animals have three options: migrate, hibernate, or stay active. Those that are active face dire circumstances. The same frigid cold, blowing winds, cold rain, snow and ice we face every day. Some of which may keep us from work, social times, and school, but our little friends face as well with little or no comfort.
Their only recourse is to find quality habitat which make the difference between perishing or surviving until spring. Some animals find protection in rock walls, brush piles, downed wood, or underground. For many though, evergreens often provide the best winter, or thermal, cover. Pines, hemlocks, spruces, and even rhododendrons protect birds and other mammals from the wind, snow and ice, as they keep their leaves and needles throughout the winter.
It is common for example to find black-capped chickadees taking refuge in conifer foliage with their heads tucked under their wings to conserve energy. Ruffled grouse, woodcocks, and wild turkey, and rabbits will seek refuge there too.
For the homeowner, there are a few things to consider not doing right now. Keep low hanging branches of evergreens, especially if they touch the ground. These are valuable places of protection. Consider keeping bunches of ornamental grasses too. They tend to stay upright and in clumps providing a good source of shelter. Don’t be in too much of a hurry to remove brush piles either. What you can do is take a few moments in the dead of winter to look for signs of life. Appreciate what you have to keep you warm and look for ways to sustain our outside friends.
The Penn State Master Gardeners have the free publication “Landscaping for Wildlife: Trees, Shrubs, and Vines” call 570-963-6842 or email us at LackawannaMG@psu.edu for a copy.
Steve Ward
Master Gardener Coordinator
Penn State Cooperative Extension in Lackawanna County
These animals have three options: migrate, hibernate, or stay active. Those that are active face dire circumstances. The same frigid cold, blowing winds, cold rain, snow and ice we face every day. Some of which may keep us from work, social times, and school, but our little friends face as well with little or no comfort.
Their only recourse is to find quality habitat which make the difference between perishing or surviving until spring. Some animals find protection in rock walls, brush piles, downed wood, or underground. For many though, evergreens often provide the best winter, or thermal, cover. Pines, hemlocks, spruces, and even rhododendrons protect birds and other mammals from the wind, snow and ice, as they keep their leaves and needles throughout the winter.
It is common for example to find black-capped chickadees taking refuge in conifer foliage with their heads tucked under their wings to conserve energy. Ruffled grouse, woodcocks, and wild turkey, and rabbits will seek refuge there too.
For the homeowner, there are a few things to consider not doing right now. Keep low hanging branches of evergreens, especially if they touch the ground. These are valuable places of protection. Consider keeping bunches of ornamental grasses too. They tend to stay upright and in clumps providing a good source of shelter. Don’t be in too much of a hurry to remove brush piles either. What you can do is take a few moments in the dead of winter to look for signs of life. Appreciate what you have to keep you warm and look for ways to sustain our outside friends.
The Penn State Master Gardeners have the free publication “Landscaping for Wildlife: Trees, Shrubs, and Vines” call 570-963-6842 or email us at LackawannaMG@psu.edu for a copy.
Steve Ward
Master Gardener Coordinator
Penn State Cooperative Extension in Lackawanna County
Tuesday, December 14, 2010
Dead Trees Bring Life
If a tree falls in a forest and no one is around to hear it, does it make a sound? This is a question asked for ages, and no matter the philosophical answers debated, a fallen tree may have uses no one sees. Trees have countless uses for humans. They offer shade, filter the air, and add value and beauty to the home landscape. Trees stabilize the soil and even produce food for us. When a tree is cut, it can be transformed into fuel, made into furniture, form the structure of our homes, and without trees, a newspaper could not be written, produced, or read.
Dead trees have a useful and special value, not for us but for wildlife. Dead parts of live trees, which are called 'snags', and fallen trees, referred to as 'logs' become important resources in nature. They become food and shelter for a number of species. As a tree decomposes, it recycles itself into the soil. The process enriches the soil and makes conditions favorable for the next generation of seedlings.
Logs become shelter for many layers of life. Insects, salamanders, mice and other small creatures seek refuge there. Other woodland life feed off them. Some grouse have been known to raise generations on the same logs. As the wood decays, it increases the mushroom population. During the harsh winter months, mushrooms are an important food source for birds, squirrel, and deer.
Snags, or standing dead trees, offer a nesting place for thirty-five species of birds. Wood ducks look for tree cavities near water. Barn owls look for nesting sites near large fields. Chickadees, sapsuckers, and woodpeckers make beneficial use of snags. As insects invade a dead tree, they attract turtles, shrews, salamanders, and bats among others, to sustain their life. One bat can consume thousands of mosquitoes while we slumber away.
While it may not always be feasible to keep dead trees on your property, some consideration should be given to sustaining the life we don’t see. On a smaller scale, brush piles, or even a post-season live Christmas tree set outside can create a haven for wildlife. Just because we don’t hear a sound doesn’t mean sounds are not being made.
For more information on this topic, The Penn State Master Gardeners have the publication 'Dead Wood for Wildlife'. Please contact us at 570-963-9642 or email LackawannaMG@psu.edu to request your free copy.
Steve Ward
Master Gardener Coordinator
Penn State Cooperative Extension in Lackawanna County
Dead trees have a useful and special value, not for us but for wildlife. Dead parts of live trees, which are called 'snags', and fallen trees, referred to as 'logs' become important resources in nature. They become food and shelter for a number of species. As a tree decomposes, it recycles itself into the soil. The process enriches the soil and makes conditions favorable for the next generation of seedlings.
Logs become shelter for many layers of life. Insects, salamanders, mice and other small creatures seek refuge there. Other woodland life feed off them. Some grouse have been known to raise generations on the same logs. As the wood decays, it increases the mushroom population. During the harsh winter months, mushrooms are an important food source for birds, squirrel, and deer.
Snags, or standing dead trees, offer a nesting place for thirty-five species of birds. Wood ducks look for tree cavities near water. Barn owls look for nesting sites near large fields. Chickadees, sapsuckers, and woodpeckers make beneficial use of snags. As insects invade a dead tree, they attract turtles, shrews, salamanders, and bats among others, to sustain their life. One bat can consume thousands of mosquitoes while we slumber away.
While it may not always be feasible to keep dead trees on your property, some consideration should be given to sustaining the life we don’t see. On a smaller scale, brush piles, or even a post-season live Christmas tree set outside can create a haven for wildlife. Just because we don’t hear a sound doesn’t mean sounds are not being made.
For more information on this topic, The Penn State Master Gardeners have the publication 'Dead Wood for Wildlife'. Please contact us at 570-963-9642 or email LackawannaMG@psu.edu to request your free copy.
Steve Ward
Master Gardener Coordinator
Penn State Cooperative Extension in Lackawanna County
Tuesday, May 25, 2010
Avoid Attracting Bears - Part II
In an article posted on May 5th, we listed five suggestions that could prevent attracting bears to your property. Here are some tips if you actually encounter a bear – whether in your garden or in the woods.
Stay Calm. If you see a bear and it hasn’t seen you, leave the area calmly. Talk or make noise while moving away to help it discover your presence. Choose a route that will not intersect with the bear if it is moving.
Get Back. If you have surprised a bear, slowly back away while talking softly. Face the bear, but avoid direct eye contact. Do not turn and run; rapid movement may be perceived as danger to a bear that is already feeling threatened. Avoid blocking the bear’s only escape route and try to move away from any cubs you see or hear. Do not attempt to climb a tree. A female bear may falsely interpret this as an attempt to get at her cubs, even though the cubs may be in a different tree.
Pay Attention. If a bear is displaying signs of nervousness – pacing, swinging its head, or popping its jaws – about your presence, leave the area. Some bears may bluff charge to within a few feet. If this occurs, stand your ground, wave your arms wildly, and shout at the bear. Turning and running could elicit a chase and you cannot outrun a bear.
Fight Back. If a bear attacks, fight back as you continue to leave the area. Black bears have been driven away with rocks, sticks, binoculars, car keys, or even bare hands.
To report nuisance bears, contact the Game Commission Region Office nearest you. The telephone numbers for the Northeast Region Office in Dallas, Luzerne County, is 570-675-1143.
More information on bears is available on the agency’s website (www.pgc.state.pa.us) by clicking on the “Wildlife” tab in the menu bar at the top of the homepage, and then selecting “Black Bears” From the “Mammals” section. Or contact your local cooperative extension office. In Lackawanna County ask for the Garden Help line at 963-6842 or email LackawannaMG@psu.edu.
Terry Schettini, Extension Educator
Penn State Cooperative Extension in Lackawanna County
Penn State is committed to affirmative action, equal opportunity, and the diversity of its workforce.
Stay Calm. If you see a bear and it hasn’t seen you, leave the area calmly. Talk or make noise while moving away to help it discover your presence. Choose a route that will not intersect with the bear if it is moving.
Get Back. If you have surprised a bear, slowly back away while talking softly. Face the bear, but avoid direct eye contact. Do not turn and run; rapid movement may be perceived as danger to a bear that is already feeling threatened. Avoid blocking the bear’s only escape route and try to move away from any cubs you see or hear. Do not attempt to climb a tree. A female bear may falsely interpret this as an attempt to get at her cubs, even though the cubs may be in a different tree.
Pay Attention. If a bear is displaying signs of nervousness – pacing, swinging its head, or popping its jaws – about your presence, leave the area. Some bears may bluff charge to within a few feet. If this occurs, stand your ground, wave your arms wildly, and shout at the bear. Turning and running could elicit a chase and you cannot outrun a bear.
Fight Back. If a bear attacks, fight back as you continue to leave the area. Black bears have been driven away with rocks, sticks, binoculars, car keys, or even bare hands.
To report nuisance bears, contact the Game Commission Region Office nearest you. The telephone numbers for the Northeast Region Office in Dallas, Luzerne County, is 570-675-1143.
More information on bears is available on the agency’s website (www.pgc.state.pa.us) by clicking on the “Wildlife” tab in the menu bar at the top of the homepage, and then selecting “Black Bears” From the “Mammals” section. Or contact your local cooperative extension office. In Lackawanna County ask for the Garden Help line at 963-6842 or email LackawannaMG@psu.edu.
Terry Schettini, Extension Educator
Penn State Cooperative Extension in Lackawanna County
Penn State is committed to affirmative action, equal opportunity, and the diversity of its workforce.
Wednesday, May 19, 2010
Groundhogs
Is it Punxsutawney Phil, the famous furry barometer, or maybe Gus the second most famous groundhog, you see scurry across your yard? Probably not, but as common as this long tailed rodent is seen, it would seem that Ground Hog’s Day happens seven days a week, all year long.
Marmota monax, the groundhog, also known as the woodchuck, is a chunky creature weighing up to 10 lbs. Its length ranges sixteen to twenty inches plus the tail, four to seven inches. While open farm land is their first choice, the groundhog has made a comfortable home in the suburban landscape where plenty of food and shelter make life easy for them. Often a groundhog will construct its burrow along stone walls, at the base of trees and even along a foundation.
Groundhog burrows can be identified by the large mound of excavated earth at the main entrance. On this mound, which is constantly renewed by debris from within, the groundhog frequently sits to look for danger. The entranceway is 10 to 12 inches in diameter, and they also have secondary entrances. These tend to be hidden and dug from below so mounds are not seen.
The groundhog can be the bane of most homeowners. The animal’s feeding and burrowing hab¬its conflict with human interests. Damage often occurs on farms, in home gardens, orchards, nurseries, around build¬ings. Damage to crops such as alfalfa, soybeans, beans, squash, tomatoes, and peas can be costly and extensive. A homeowner may lose his or her entire tomato patch. Fruit trees and ornamental shrubs may be damaged by groundhog as they gnaw on woody vegetation. Mounds of earth from the excavated burrow systems and holes formed at burrow entrances present a hazard to farm equipment, animals and humans. On occasion, burrowing can building foundations.
In Pennsylvania, groundhogs are classified as game ani¬mals. Game protection is removed when they damage personal property. In that case, groundhogs can be controlled by the property owner using the lawful means. If a homeowner does not feel comfortable with any means of control, there are many wildlife pest control companies who can do this for you.
If the area is small, poultry wire or two inch woven mesh fencing can be installed. With three foot minimum above ground, the fence should have twelve inches buried in the ground, with six inches bent in an L shape pointing away.
Scarecrows can provide temporary relief from groundhog damage. Move them regularly and incorporate a high level of human activity in the susceptible area.
There are no repellents or toxicants that are for use on groundhogs. There are other products such as fumigants and gas cartridges available at home and garden centers which are labeled for use on groundhogs. Please carefully follow the directions as these are dangerous products.
There are live traps the homeowners can use as well. Place the trap near fresh damage or at the main entrance of the burrow. Use fresh bait such as apple slices, carrots, and lettuce. Be careful once the animal is trapped. Give some thought to a relocation area at least ten miles away and here the groundhog will not be the pest he was to you.
For more information on groundhogs or any other home horticulture topic, please contact the Penn State Master Gardener Helpline at (570) 963-6842 or email: LackawannaMG@psu.edu
Steve Ward
Master Gardener Coordinator
Penn State Cooperative Extension in Lackawanna County
Penn State is committed to affirmative action, equal opportunity, and the diversity of its workforce
Marmota monax, the groundhog, also known as the woodchuck, is a chunky creature weighing up to 10 lbs. Its length ranges sixteen to twenty inches plus the tail, four to seven inches. While open farm land is their first choice, the groundhog has made a comfortable home in the suburban landscape where plenty of food and shelter make life easy for them. Often a groundhog will construct its burrow along stone walls, at the base of trees and even along a foundation.
Groundhog burrows can be identified by the large mound of excavated earth at the main entrance. On this mound, which is constantly renewed by debris from within, the groundhog frequently sits to look for danger. The entranceway is 10 to 12 inches in diameter, and they also have secondary entrances. These tend to be hidden and dug from below so mounds are not seen.
The groundhog can be the bane of most homeowners. The animal’s feeding and burrowing hab¬its conflict with human interests. Damage often occurs on farms, in home gardens, orchards, nurseries, around build¬ings. Damage to crops such as alfalfa, soybeans, beans, squash, tomatoes, and peas can be costly and extensive. A homeowner may lose his or her entire tomato patch. Fruit trees and ornamental shrubs may be damaged by groundhog as they gnaw on woody vegetation. Mounds of earth from the excavated burrow systems and holes formed at burrow entrances present a hazard to farm equipment, animals and humans. On occasion, burrowing can building foundations.
In Pennsylvania, groundhogs are classified as game ani¬mals. Game protection is removed when they damage personal property. In that case, groundhogs can be controlled by the property owner using the lawful means. If a homeowner does not feel comfortable with any means of control, there are many wildlife pest control companies who can do this for you.
If the area is small, poultry wire or two inch woven mesh fencing can be installed. With three foot minimum above ground, the fence should have twelve inches buried in the ground, with six inches bent in an L shape pointing away.
Scarecrows can provide temporary relief from groundhog damage. Move them regularly and incorporate a high level of human activity in the susceptible area.
There are no repellents or toxicants that are for use on groundhogs. There are other products such as fumigants and gas cartridges available at home and garden centers which are labeled for use on groundhogs. Please carefully follow the directions as these are dangerous products.
There are live traps the homeowners can use as well. Place the trap near fresh damage or at the main entrance of the burrow. Use fresh bait such as apple slices, carrots, and lettuce. Be careful once the animal is trapped. Give some thought to a relocation area at least ten miles away and here the groundhog will not be the pest he was to you.
For more information on groundhogs or any other home horticulture topic, please contact the Penn State Master Gardener Helpline at (570) 963-6842 or email: LackawannaMG@psu.edu
Steve Ward
Master Gardener Coordinator
Penn State Cooperative Extension in Lackawanna County
Penn State is committed to affirmative action, equal opportunity, and the diversity of its workforce
Wednesday, May 5, 2010
Avoid Attracting Bears
Observing wildlife while tending to our yards is one of the many joys of gardening; however, “Now is the time to keep bears from becoming a nuisance later in the summer,” according to Mark Ternent, Pennsylvania Game Commission black bear biologist. Bears are less likely to stay or return if they do not find anything rewarding. Ternent listed five suggestions that could prevent attracting bears to a property:
Play it smart. Do not feed wildlife. Food placed outside for wildlife, such as corn for squirrels, may attract bears. Summer bird feeder tips from Audubon Pennsylvania include: avoid using sunflower seeds, hummingbird nectar mixes or suet; bring feeders inside at night; or suspend feeders from high crosswires so they are at least 10 feet above the ground and four feet from anything a bear can climb, including overhead limbs.
Keep it clean. Don’t put out garbage until pick-up day; don’t throw table scraps out back; don’t add fruit or vegetable wastes to your compost pile; clean your barbecue grill regularly; and bring pet food dishes inside overnight.
Keep your distance. If a bear shows up in your backyard, stay calm. Shout at it but don’t approach it. If the bear won't leave, call the nearest Game Commission regional office or local police department.
Eliminate temptation. Bears that visit your area are often drawn there. Neighbors need to work together to reduce an area’s appeal to bears. Ask area businesses to keep dumpsters closed and bear-proofed (chained or locked shut with a metal lid).
Check please! If your dog is barking, or cat is clawing at the door to get in, try to determine what has alarmed your pet using outside lights and from a safe position, such as a porch or an upstairs window. Don't do it on foot with a flashlight. Black bears blend in too well with nighttime surroundings providing the chance for a close encounter.
To report nuisance bears, contact the Game Commission Region Office nearest you. The telephone numbers for the Northeast Region Office in Dallas, Luzerne County, is 570-675-1143.
More information on bears is available on the agency’s website (www.pgc.state.pa.us) by clicking on the “Wildlife” tab in the menu bar at the top of the homepage, and then selecting “Black Bears” From the “Mammals” section. Or contact your local cooperative extension office. In Lackawanna County ask for the Garden Help line at 963-6842 or email LackawannaMG@psu.edu
Terry Schettini, Extension Educator
Penn State Cooperative Extension in Lackawanna County
Penn State is committed to affirmative action, equal opportunity, and the diversity of its workforce.
Play it smart. Do not feed wildlife. Food placed outside for wildlife, such as corn for squirrels, may attract bears. Summer bird feeder tips from Audubon Pennsylvania include: avoid using sunflower seeds, hummingbird nectar mixes or suet; bring feeders inside at night; or suspend feeders from high crosswires so they are at least 10 feet above the ground and four feet from anything a bear can climb, including overhead limbs.
Keep it clean. Don’t put out garbage until pick-up day; don’t throw table scraps out back; don’t add fruit or vegetable wastes to your compost pile; clean your barbecue grill regularly; and bring pet food dishes inside overnight.
Keep your distance. If a bear shows up in your backyard, stay calm. Shout at it but don’t approach it. If the bear won't leave, call the nearest Game Commission regional office or local police department.
Eliminate temptation. Bears that visit your area are often drawn there. Neighbors need to work together to reduce an area’s appeal to bears. Ask area businesses to keep dumpsters closed and bear-proofed (chained or locked shut with a metal lid).
Check please! If your dog is barking, or cat is clawing at the door to get in, try to determine what has alarmed your pet using outside lights and from a safe position, such as a porch or an upstairs window. Don't do it on foot with a flashlight. Black bears blend in too well with nighttime surroundings providing the chance for a close encounter.
To report nuisance bears, contact the Game Commission Region Office nearest you. The telephone numbers for the Northeast Region Office in Dallas, Luzerne County, is 570-675-1143.
More information on bears is available on the agency’s website (www.pgc.state.pa.us) by clicking on the “Wildlife” tab in the menu bar at the top of the homepage, and then selecting “Black Bears” From the “Mammals” section. Or contact your local cooperative extension office. In Lackawanna County ask for the Garden Help line at 963-6842 or email LackawannaMG@psu.edu
Terry Schettini, Extension Educator
Penn State Cooperative Extension in Lackawanna County
Penn State is committed to affirmative action, equal opportunity, and the diversity of its workforce.
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